MORPHOLOGY

Morphology is the study of the forms of words, and the ways in which words are related to other words of the same language. It is about the rules for word formation in a language.


MORPHEME
Morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit. Many words have two or more syllables but only one morpheme.
Example:
• Banana. This word has 1 morpheme.
• Unbreakable. This word has 3 morphemes (un-break-able).

There are two basic types of morphemes:
1. Bound morpheme is a morpheme that must be attached to another element and cannot stand alone. They need suffix or affix to attach them.
Examples:
• Capitalism (capital-ism)
• Unforgettable(un-forget-able)
• Rewrite(re-write)

Two classes of bound morphemes:
a. Inflectional morphemes is to modify grammatical of word , changes in number, person, and tense but do not shift the base word. An inflectional morpheme creates a change in the function of the word.
Example:
The word "cats" from cat and adding "s". It is still noun, even though we added "s". It only changes from singular to plural noun.
b. Derivational morpheme is to modify a word according to its lexical and grammatical class. This type of morpheme changes the meaning of the word or the part of speech or both and often creates new words.
Example:
The word reading from the word read and suffix -ing. Read is verb and with suffix -ing , it become noun.

2. Free/ Unbound morpheme is a morpheme that can be a word by itself and can stand alone.
Examples: eat, big, hard, etc.

From those theories above, we can analyze those words which contain the morphemes.

• Helpful

• This word has 2 morphemes (help-ful)
• Help is free morpheme and suffix -ful is bound morpheme.
• It is including the derivational morpheme because help is a verb and with suffix -ful it become adjective.

ALLOMORPH
Allomorph is a variant form of a morpheme. The meaning remains the same, while the sound and in shape or pronunciation according to its condition of use can vary. The final morphemes in the following words are pronounced differently, but they all indicate plurality: dogs, cats, and horses.

•  English indefinite article has 2 allomorphs: a and an
•  English plural has 3 allomorphs: cats, dogs, horses.

There are two classes of allomorph:
1. Predictable allomorph is systematic. It occurs so regularly that linguists can write rules which describe the alternation.
2. Unpredictable allomorph is a variant form which doesn't seem very systematic to modern English speakers.

The examples of allomorph:

• In English, the negative prefix in- has several allomorphs:
• Im-polite
• In-come
• Ir-rational
• Il-legal
• The prefix that has mean “continue” re- has 2 allomorphs:
• As [ri] in ‘recount’
• as [re] in ‘recommend’
• The past tense morpheme is –ed has several allomorphs:
• As [ id ] in ‘planted’
• As [ d ] in ‘skimmed’
• As [ t ] in ‘ looked’
• The allomorph of the morpheme –s in English has several allomorphs:
• As [ s ] in ‘lots’
• As [ z ] in ‘days’
• As [ iz ] in ‘ages’
• Predictable allomorph with prefix ad- :
• Admit
• Attend
• Assent
• Arrive
• Account 

AFFIXES
An affix is a bound morpheme that is joined before, after, or within a root or stem. It is additions to a word. Affix is also a morpheme (that is attached to a word stem to form a new word): a collective term for three types of morphemes (word parts).

Affix is divided into several categories, depending on their position with reference to the stem;

1. Prefix
A prefix is an element placed at the beginning of a word to adjust or qualify its meaning. A prefix is an addition to a word that comes in front to form a new word.
English examples for prefixes:

•  co- : joint, with, accompanying, together
• Ex: co-ordinate, co-operate, co-operative, co-exist,
•  re- : again, back
• Ex: reopen, rebuild, remake, resource, research, reorganize
• en-, em- : to make into, to put into, to get into
• Ex: ennoble, enlist, enliven, embolden
• fore- : before
• Ex: foreboding, forecourt, forefinger
• mis- : wrong, astray
• Ex: mistrust, misuse, mismanage
• Prefix re- : again, back
• Ex: resource, research, reorganize
• Prefix un- : not, opposite of
• Ex: unnoticed, unpleasant, unlike
• Prefix un- : reserve action, deprive of, released from
• Ex: unfold, unwrap, unlock
• Prefix up- : to make something greater, better, or higher
• Ex: upload, uproot, upholster
• Prefix amphi- : two, both, on both
• Ex: amphibian, amphitheatre
• Prefix an-, a- :not, without
• Ex: anachronistic, anonymous

2. Infix
Infix is an affix that is inserted something word within a root or stem. Infix is an affix inserted put inside something else or a stem (an existing word). It contrast with adfix, a rare term for an affix attached to the outside of something or a stem, such as a prefix (after) or suffix (before).
Example of Infix (English)
• The infix (iz) or (izn) is characteristic of hip-hop slang, for example hizouse for house and shiznit for shit. Infixes also occur in some language games.
• bloom of abso-bloomin-lutely

3. Suffix
A suffix is an affix that is attached to the end of a root or stem.
Examples of Suffix:
• -ed: The past tense suffix –ed attaches to the end of the stem walk to form the past tense verb worked.
• –ish attached to the end of stem child, girl, etc meaning like as in childish, girlish.
• -man (English) “manly” or heroic”, “male person”.

4. Circum fix
Circum fix is an affix made up of two separate parts which surround and attach to a root or stem. The morphological process whereby this is achieved is called circum fixation. Affixes located both at the beginning and at the end of English words, together as single units.
There are 3 Category of Circum fix: a, a- -ing, em- -en, en- -en.
Examples of Circum fix:
• a-ing (ahunting) : I go ahunting.
• em-en (embolden) : You have to embolden.
• e-en (enlighten) : The book enlighten my mind.

5. Suprafix
A suprafix is a kind of affix in which a supra segmental is superimposed on one or more syllables of the root or stem, signaling a particular morph syntactic operation. It’s a type of affix where a supra segmental change (such as tone or stress) modifies an existing morpheme’s meaning in many language, they are used differentiate between otherwise identical lexemes, but in some they are used derivationally or inflectionally.
Ex: ‘produce, n: /pre’dju:s/, pro’duce, v: /’prodju:s/, ‘record, n: /’ recod/, re’cord, v /ri’kod/

6. Simulfix
A simulfix is a change or replacement of vowels or consonants (usually vowels) which changes the meaning of a word. in English considered irregularities, all of which left over from pluralization rules:
Ex: Knife becomes knave when plural, hear in past tense becomes heard.
7. Separable affix
It’s an affix that can be detached from its stem and located elsewhere in a construction.
The affix an- is as separable affix. It’s attached to its stem in the verb anchormen –‘to arrive’, but it can be detached from the stem, as in the sentence Ich komme an –‘arrive’_German).
Hij is aangekomen. – He has arrived.
Ik kom morgen aan – I shall arrive tomorrow.

8. Derivational affix
A derivational affix is an affix by means of which one word is formed (derived) from another. The derived word is often of a different word class from the original.
In contrast to an inflectional affix, a derivational affix:
• is not part of an obligatory set of affixes
• generally occurs closer to the root
• generally is more meaningful, and is more likely to result in a form that has a somewhat idiosyncratic meaning.

9. Inflectional affix
An inflectional affix is an affix that
• expresses a grammatical contrast that is obligatory for its stem's word class in some given grammatical context
• does not change the word class of its stem
• is typically located farther from its root than a derivational affix, and produces a predictable, no idiosyncratic change of meaning
Examples:
• Aspect
• Case
• Modality
• Number
• Person
• Tense
• Voice

HOMOPHONE Homophone is a word that in pronounced (sound) the same as another word but differs in meaning and spelling.
The examples:
Same sound but different meaning:
Example:
o See (district or office of a bishop)
o sea (salt water that covers most of the earth's surface)
The two words have the same sound and spelling, but different meaning:
Example:
o Down (lower level or place)
o Down (sad)
o Can (be able)
o Can (container)
Usually homophones are in groups of two, but very occasionally they can be in groups of three or even four.
Example:
o Lot (large number or amount)
o Lot (great amount)
o Lot (the whole number or amount of people or things)
Oronyms are the homophones of multiple words or phrases.
Example:
"the sky" vs. "this guy"

HOMOGRAPH
Homographs are two words that have different pronunciations but the same spelling. When spoken, the meanings may be distinguished by different pronunciations or they may not.
Example:
Evening (smoothing out)
Evening (after sunset)